Savings and Additional Revenue

Energy:

1. Fuel costs. Class I railroads consumed 3.723 billion gallons of diesel fuel in 2015.¹   The envisioned motorized well-car railroad will not use fossil fuels directly but instead will be powered by electricity that is generated off-site. Near term, the off-site generators will utilize several different energy sources, not all of which, such as natural gas, are considered green. Nevertheless, progress toward carbon-free free energy sources is an important objective of the proposed railroad. Decisions regarding fuel selection will be based upon multiple considerations.
   
   Listing fuel costs as a savings may seem counterintuitive because, electrified or not, the energy required to move a fixed amount of freight by rail remains the same. However, many additional and harder-to-quantify factors are not reflected in a first-glance analysis -- factors such as the greater efficiency realized by off-site electrical energy generation vs. on-board prime-mover generation, the elimination of unproductive idling, and the reduction of gross weight as motorized well cars replace heavy locomotives.
2. Regenerative energy. Conventionally, the kinetic energy of a slowing train, or one that is braking while descending a grade, is lost as heat to the wheels and brake shoes of freight cars and locomotives that are not equipped with dynamic brakes. With dynamic braking, the motors of a locomotive function as generators that convert some of the energy of the slowing train to electrical energy, thereby avoiding brake failure due to overheating. Unfortunately, because it cannot currently be stored or used, the electrical energy is discharged through resistor banks on the locomotive, and again, the energy is wasted as heat. In contrast, the electricity produced during braking by the bogie motors/generators of a motorized well car can either be stored in an onboard battery for later use or returned to the railroad’s electric grid to offset a portion of its purchased electricity. The amount of regenerated electricity is a savings.
   
   The energy that is produced through regeneration is subject to many variables including track grades and the number, speeds, and weights of motorized well cars. The regenerated energy that can be factored into an energy computation for a motorized well-car railroad may be roughly estimated using data from historically electrified railroad operations. Other estimates might be obtained by adapting empirical data from electric cars and trucks that also produce and utilize regenerated energy.
3. Streamlining. The drag on a freight car due to air resistance, with and without winds, is a factor that affects energy consumption at all speeds. Drag increases with the square of the speed and becomes a significant factor at higher speeds. Because motorized well cars will likely travel at speeds that are higher than the speed of a conventional freight train, streamlining devices that reduce aerodynamic drag will be necessary. Wind tunnel or simulated wind-tunnel testing will provide data that can determine how much energy the streamlining devices can save.
4. Platooning. The first freight car in a conventional train is exposed to full frontal aerodynamic drag. The trailing cars of train are subject to reduced drag because the cars are closely coupled together, thereby decreasing the exposed frontal area of the remaining train. Equivalent to mechanical coupling, motorized well cars can be similarly joined by virtual coupling (through electronic sensing and control processes comparable to positive train control) in an alignment known as platooning. The platooning of multiple motorized well cars will reduce aerodynamic drag and lower energy requirements.
5. Fueling infrastructure. Transporting the fuel required by diesel locomotives necessitates an infrastructure that consists of pipe lines, fuel delivery vehicles, storage tanks, fueling tracks, docks, and pumps. The business of fueling also requires fuel spill clean-up preparation, insurance, labor, and associated maintenances. Fueling operations also entail train delays. The costs associated with fueling will be eliminated in a motorized well-car railroad. (Note: The huge costs of electrification are discussed in the “Added Expenses” section of this dissertation.)
6. CO2: CO2 eliminated from locomotives. Since 2016, all forms of transportation, including cars and light trucks, have become the largest source of green-house gasses in the U.S.² Transportation in 2015, produced 1810.4 million metric tons of CO2 and its equivalents, and railroads were responsible for 41.3 million metric tons of the total.³ Ninety-two percent of the energy used for transportation in the U.S. was derived from petroleum, and transportation accounted for seventy one percent of U.S. petroleum consumption.⁴
   
   Initially, it would appear that the share of total greenhouse gases attributable to railroad operations is inconsequential. However, if the greenhouse gas emissions from locomotives and railroads remain static, while the emissions from cars and trucks decrease as batteries and electric motors replace combustion engines, the proportion of greenhouse gasses attributable to railroads will surge in comparison, and railroads will increasingly be seen as major greenhouse gas contributors. Public and political pressure will be brought to bear for railroads to “do something”. Most likely, the railroads will either yield market share to cleaner (and likely driverless) electric trucks, which already are being tested in revenue service, or pay forfeitures in the form of a carbon tax. Carbon taxes will have the same effect as yielding market share. To remain competitive, railroads must electrify, which, in the long term, will result in a savings. In summary, electrified railroads will save the future costs that will be imposed upon the greenhouse gas externalities of dieselized railroads that fail to act.
7. CO2 eliminated from long-haul highway trucks. As it stands, trucks are a major emitter of greenhouse gasses. To the extent that they can capture freight markets that are currently serviced by trucks, electrified railroads can claim the reductions or elimination of greenhouse gasses produced by the displaced trucks as a savings. These savings will be monetized in the form of carbon credits. (The reverse also is true if freight markets are shifted to electrified trucks due to the failure of railroads to curb the greenhouse gasses of their locomotives.)
8. New Markets: Capture of short to medium freight markets. Data show that most freight is transported less than 500 miles, and of that freight, most of it is shipped by trucks. ⁵ If rail freight shipping becomes automated, expedient, and less expensive to the extent envisioned by the proposed motorized well-car railroad, freight shipping markets will naturally swing from road to rail, assuming that all other criteria are equal. Though not realized, the profits attributed to shifting markets should be considered as an additional gain for the railroads.
9. Capture of premium freight markets. Much of rail freight is comprised of bulk commodities that earn low freight rates. Some of the markets for bulk commodities, such as coal, oil, frac sand, ethanol, and garbage, are already in decline. On the other hand, markets for manufactured and finished products command premiums, on both weight and volume bases, and are frequently shipped by trucks and by air.⁶ A motorized well-car railroad that can show superior expediency and economy will win these premium markets. The profits from newly-acquired premium shipping markets also will show as additional revenue.
10. Faster freight service. Trucks generally can offer faster freight service than can rail. If an automated railroad can also provide timely service, and provide it at a lower cost, this trucking advantage will become moot.
11. Last-mile service. Unlike rails, roads go everywhere, and obviate the need and expenses for transfers and switching. Generally, truck shipping contracts automatically include last-mile point-to-point services. By utilizing containerization, intermodality, electrification, and superior automation, the proposed motorized well-car railroad can minimize transfer times and, in essence, offer timely point-to-point shipping to improve efficiency and economy that is competitive with trucking.

    Automation:

    Through artificial intelligence (AI) and other programming advances, a savings in time, labor, and equipment will be achieved through automation of the following:
12. Automated pickup and delivery scheduling. Although railroads have already automated much of the paperwork of shipping and delivery, there are still more savings to be gained. These logistical tasks will be further automated on the envisioned railroad by assigning the arrangements of shipping and delivery to one individual, namely the shipping customer (the shipper), who is not an employee of the railroad. The shipper’s helpers will be a railroad-owned and operated computer, along with the railroad’s web site. Customers will access the railroad’s web site and declare an origin, destination, and time frame for shipping a container or multiple containers. The railroad’s computers will determine the best route and combination of modes to achieve the customer’s needs and tender a cost that the customer can either accept or reject.
    
    When an offer is accepted, the customer will receive confirmation, and in a short order, a standard-sized container will be delivered to the customer’s loading dock via either a railway well car or a taxi truck.
    
    The customer may request a modified container to accommodate specific loads such as an electric refrigerating unit for perishables, a container-sized open frame for a lumber load or automobiles, or a box-framed tank for liquid shipments. Any added modifications will still be sized to fit within the footprint of a standard container and include the necessary fittings for lifting and securing the modified container to a taxi truck or well car.
13. Automated well-car traffic control. Automated well-car traffic control computers will function as dispatchers. The control computers will determine when a well car proceeds, when it accelerates and slows, and when and where it is switched to mains branches, and freight depots. The computer also will control well-car insertions into and departures from platoons. The simplest way to envision well-car traffic control is to observe Class 8 trucks at a freeway interchange and imagine how they would navigate if there were no automobiles or other competing traffic. Dispatch centers will be downsized along with surplus signaling.
14. Automated freight tracking. Freight tracking is mostly a service provided to a shipper who is interested, for whatever reason, in the real-time statis and location of an en-route shipment. A railroad computer with GPS inputs will provide this information on demand via a web site and, in addition, immediately notify a customer of major deviations from a shipping contract. Such deviations may be caused by an accident, unexpected weather, a power failure, or a need for unscheduled maintenance.
15. Automated billing and payment. Billing for a shipment will be done electronically when a shipment is concluded and accepted by the intended receiver. The receiver will have a set time to approve the shipment. Payment will be made immediately to the carrier by a deduction from a shipper’s account.
16. Automated financial tracking. Financial tracking and accounting of a railroad will be done in real time to show the financial state of the railroad at any given moment. Tracking data will be combined with the costs of borrowing and deductions for obsolescence. An algorithm will determine taxes and file tax documents and payments. The information will show how much capital is available for financing future projects and estimate payback schedules.
17. Automated purchasing. Purchases of recurring items needed by the railroad will be made automatically.
18. Automated record keeping. Records will be saved to fine-tune routine operations by statistical process controls, and in turn, the controls will be applied to achieve greater efficiencies. The records will be easy to access for historical documentation when needed.

    Efficiency:

    Shipping should be perceived as a singular process, whether or not it is accomplished separately by rail, by truck, or by a combination of rail and truck. If a shipment that conventionally would be consigned to a truck, is instead done by rail due to newly implemented railroad efficiencies, it represents an overall public savings that should be, at least partially, credited to rail. Efficiencies should be measured not only in terms of direct monetary economies but also in the costs of indirect externalities such as deferred roadway wear and maintenance, greenhouse gas reductions, and other quality-of-life factors.
19. Elimination of yards and yard delays. Without the need for sorting carloads with differing destinations at multiple junction points, surplus yards of any kind will be eliminated.
20. Double tracking and elimination of siding delays. The envisioned railroad features bidirectional running on paired tracks to eliminate the need for most sidings. Some railroad routes already are double tracked within the same right-of-way. Directional running on additional routes can be accomplished when the single railway lines of two nearby legacy railroads are paired with one line running exclusively in one direction and the second line running exclusively in the opposite direction.
    
    Nominally, traffic will move at the same maximum speed. Motor controls in each well-car bogie will allow power to be adjusted when needed to maintain speeds.
21. Motorized well-car utilization. For a variety of reasons, many freight cars on conventional railroads are utilized for single shipments only once a month. Moreover, freight volumes to and from a destination may be mismatched, due primarily to market realities. A city known for its manufacturing or warehousing, for example, may export more freight than a city known as a financial or insurance center that is a net freight importer, thereby causing a surplus or shortage of empty containers and well cars that must be ferried to other terminals to balance availability. An intermodal, motorized, well-car railroad offers substantial flexibility. With an option to immediately redistribute empty containers either by motorized well cars or by trucks, accumulations of containers will be minimized. The time and weight attributable to ferrying empty containers and well cars will be diminished in comparison with redistributions undertaken by railcar cuts pulled by switchers and road locomotives.
22. Greater acceleration and faster stopping. Irrespective of the mode of conveyance, when equivalent shipments are accelerated faster and quickly stopped, fewer pieces of equipment and less labor will be required, although energy demands may rise. The acceleration of a loaded, motorized well car to a cruising speed will take seconds vs the many minutes that a diesel locomotive would require to accelerate the same shipment, contained within a train, to a comparable speed.
23. Increased track capacity. The capacity of a given section of track increases with the speed of a train that occupies the track. For example, if a train traveling a 30-mile section of track moves at 30 miles/hour, it will occupy the track for one hour. The same train traveling the same section, but cruising at 60 miles/hour, will occupy the track for only a half an hour, thereby doubling the track’s capacity to two trains per hour. A string of motorized well cars will accelerate more rapidly, brake faster, and travel at a faster velocity than a freight train that is pulled by a locomotive. The track capacity of a railroad will increase proportionality.
24. Land utilization. While the need for more freight stations with intermodal facilities will require more land, the envisioned railroad will eliminate yards, fueling stations, crew accommodations, heavy maintenance facilities, and freight-car storage trackage. If railroads capture markets from trucking companies, truck stops, truck repair shops, and freight transfer facilities also can be eliminated. Fewer trucks on the road also will relieve the need for more freeway lanes.
25. Reduction of highway trucks. Compared with trains, trucks go more places and offer more service flexibility. Certainly, trucks will be needed in any foreseeable future. However, once under way, trucks are less energy efficient and (currently) more labor intensive than railroads. When freight logistics are viewed in terms of moving material goods by the least costly and most timely and efficient mode, with all externalities considered, a combination of trucks and rail may be preferable to separate shipments by either truck or rail alone. The proposed motorized well-car railroad system is intended to make freight shipments by rail more competitive with shipments by truck in all markets and particularly in shorter-haul markets. When the motorized well-car railroad is completed, fewer trucks will be required.
26. Reduction of truck licensing. Fewer trucks will require fewer truck licenses.
27. Reduction of highway gridlock. Fewer trucks on the road will reduce gridlock.
28. Elimination of dead-on-the-law delays. Although likely a minor savings, the elimination of dead-on-the-law delays and other mandated time constraints that currently plague railroads will improve the flow of a railroad.

Safety:

29. Accident reductions (crews). Without crews, there will be fewer accidents attributed to human mistakes and inattention.
30. Accident reductions (equipment). Single motorized well-car shipments will be lighter, produce less stress on rails, ties, and roadbeds, and reduce the odds of an accident. Without fuel, spillage from locomotives in the aftermath of an accident will not occur. Without physical coupling, fewer freight cars will be affected when a single freight car failure or track defect is the cause of an accident. Accident cleanups will be less difficult, faster, and less costly. The number of civilian lives lost and injuries to the public due to equipment failures will decline.
31. Reduction of highway accidents. In 2017, large trucks were involved in ~ 1500 highway accidents and caused 4761 highway fatalities.⁷ With fewer trucks on the highways as freight markets are shifted to railroads, highway accidents involving large trucks will decline.
32. Elimination of stringing effects on curved track. With the elimination of conventional trains, the forces caused by stringing also will be eliminated as will the derailing accidents that sometimes follow. Physically uncoupled, motorized well cars will not be subject to stringing effects.
33. Reduction of noise. Electric motors are quieter than diesel engines, and lighter freight cars produce less noise than heavier cars. Neighborhood noise complaints, along with the expenses of litigation, will decline.

Labor:

34. Elimination of operating crews. Labor is railroading’s largest expense. In 2016, railroads employed ~ 107,170 employees as engineers, conductors, hostlers, signal operators, and yardmasters.⁸ While the proposed railroad will require new employees to maintain automated equipment and electrical systems and also employ additional computer programmers and data analysts, the elimination of the operating employees that run and service a conventional dieselized railroad will result in a net labor reduction and represent a savings.
35. Elimination of train crew per diem. The per diem expenses of engineers, conductors, and other road personal will be eliminated.
36. Reduction of labor grievances. Labor grievances will be reduced in proportion to labor reductions.
    

    Equipment:

37. Standardization of well cars. Standardization generally leads to economies. With standardization, capital investments for manufacturing will be spread over many identical units. Parts inventories will be needed for only one design, and maintenance crews can be trained to service only one model. Maintenance crews will become familiar with common equipment and know how to quickly troubleshoot recurring problems.
38. Tractive effort. A single motorized well car will not be pulling a train, and thus will not be subject to the dead weight of unpowered cars. Motorized well cars will not require sand and sanding to increase wheel-to-rail friction.
39. Elimination of couplers. Single motorized well cars will not be physically coupled and will not include couplers. There will be no knuckle failures.
40. Elimination of signal equipment. An intermodal, motorized, well-car railroad without crews will not require visual signals.

Maintenance:

41. Brake wear. While the braking that is associated with the production of regenerative energy is a bonus, it cannot provide 100 percent of a motorized well car’s braking needs. Each car will require mechanical brakes (possibly electrically activated). However, the mechanical brakes on a motorized well car will wear less and require less maintenance in comparison with a train where regenerative braking is absent. If brake discs are employed, bogie wheels also will wear less.
42. Rail wear on straight track. Rail wear will be reduced because the loads on the rails will be lighter, and no sand will be required for traction.
43. Rail wear on curved track. Curved trackage is subject to stringing-effect wear and to slippage wear that is due to the differences in radial lengths between the inside and outside rails. Stringing effect wear will not occur with uncoupled, motorized well cars. The slippage wear may be eliminated if a differential or slip joint can be incorporated in bogie axels.
44. Reduction of highway wear. Trucks account for a large percentage of highway cracking and pavement wear. When freight shipments are transferred from trucks to well cars, highways and bridges will experience less wear.
45. Engine/motor maintenance. With fewer moving parts than diesel engines and superior durability, electric bogie motors will require less maintenance.
46. Elimination of locomotive additives. The costs of engine fluids such as water, antifreeze, anticorrosion supplements, and lubricating oils, and the labor associated with changing the fluids and the costs of disposing of spent fluids will be saved.

Added Expenses

Electrification:

1. Electrification research & development (R & D). Extensive R & D will be required to determine how much power will be needed to run motorized well cars over varying topographies. It is envisioned that the transfer of power from transmission lines to moving well cars will occur through intermittent segments that are included within a ground-level insulated conduit. The segments will be energized only when a well car connects via a pickup shoe or device. High-power transmission lines may run underground, perhaps buried safely beneath the track, or if possible, within the same conduits that contain the intermittent segments. The conduits will be manufactured off site, and ideally, be easily connected and secured above the ties between the rails (similar to Alstom). Alternatively, power may be transmitted through track-side, segmented third rails. If the well cars are equipped with sizeable batteries that allow well cars to travel extensive distances on battery power alone, electrified zones for recharging on-the-fly could be prudently coordinated with non-electrified zones. Extensive R & D also may be required to develop power conditioning equipment.
2. Manufactured equipment installation. The specialized equipment that results from the R & D efforts noted in item 1 will likely be expensive to manufacture and install. In the long term, the expenses must be cost-effective.

Track:

3. Double tracking. Double tracking is needed to prevent the delays that arise when conventional trains take sidings to allow the passage of other trains headed in an opposite direction on a single track. Many railroad sections are already double tracked. Double tracking also can be accomplished by designating the tracks of a proximate pair as one-way in each direction. Although costly, new double tracking will ultimately expedite shipping and increase capacity.
4. Grade separations. Grade separations of roads and railways at crossings will eliminate stops and delays. In lieu of grade separations, bunched well-car units in platoons may be precisely scheduled so that vehicular road traffic is not stopped every time a single well car appears at a crossing.
5. Automatic switches. Single, motorized well cars entering and departing from and to freight depots and industrial sidings will proceed in a manner similar to trucks entering and leaving freeways at on- and off-ramps. Rail interchanges will require automatic, fast-acting switches that have the fail-safe reliability of commercial aircraft.
6. Track condition sensors and monitoring. Numerous sensors already negate the need for human inspectors to monitor track conditions on modern railways. Even more sensors will be required on an automated railroad to detect rail flaws and other unsafe rail and roadbed conditions.

Freight Transfer Depots:

7. Freight depot R & D. Freight depots are needed to transfer containers from taxi trucks to motorized well cars and vise-versa. The equipment to accomplish the transfers must be automatic and have the capability to make the transfers within seconds. The transfer equipment must include sensors to ensure that containers are precisely positioned and secured. The depots also must include computerized dispatching that allows well cars to enter and leave branch and main lines.
8. Land acquisition or land repurposing. Freight depots will be built on repurposed railroad land or newly purchased land.
9. Freight depot construction. Permits of all kinds will be required for the construction and operation of freight depots. Hoist and transfer equipment needed to transfer containers will need to be purchased and installed.

Rolling Equipment:

10. Motorized well cars. While the tubs and frames of existing well cars may be utilized, new electrically motorized bogies will be needed for each well car, along with many subsystems such as horns, lights, brakes, and car-end bumpers.
11. Well-car streamlining. Wind drag will be experienced at the frontal flat ends of shipping containers and will negatively affect energy consumption. Drag can be mitigated with aerodynamically-designed fiberglass wind deflectors located at the ends of the motorized well cars. Wind tunnel testing can be used to optimize the design of the deflectors.
12. Motorized bogie R & D and procurement. R & D will be needed to determine the design of robust and standardized bogies that can be replaced in minutes if they fail in service. The size, number, and power of the motors; the gearing; the pickup devices that connect the bogie motors to trackside conductors and return regenerated power to the railroad grid; and the bogie suspensions will require research and testing. A design incorporating a split axel could reduce wheel and track wear on curves and should be investigated.
13. Electric disc brakes. Although regenerative motor forces will provide most braking, electrically energized disc brakes also will be needed.
14. Well-car battery R & D and procurement. The need for electric infrastructures at expensive-to-serve locations, such as cities and freight depots could be eliminated if motorized well cars that navigate these locations were equipped with batteries that are capable of providing an hour or so of power to a well car. The batteries could be recharged at terminals or while on-the-fly as the motorized well cars travel through rural locations that have third-rail connections to a railroad grid. Battery capacities, charging rates, and lifetimes can be improved through R & D.
15. Well-car status sensors. Systems will be needed to monitor and relay well-car bogie and concomitant equipment data to centralized computers for analysis and record keeping. Conditions will include abnormalities such as elevated or sub-normal motor temperatures, excessive electricity consumption, excessive vibrations, and odd noises. Other on-car computers will report car locations, provide positive and driverless car control, and communicate with other well cars and ground equipment such as switch controllers.

    Maintenance:

    Maintenance costs will depend upon how well potential problems are initially understood and addressed; how much effort is expended to correct causal factors; how well equipment is initially tested and built; how planned inspections and preventive maintenance are performed; and how quickly failures are detected and repaired.

16. Electric line maintenance. Electric lines and components will corrode and wear, the surrounding ground may shift or flood, tree roots may bend and break conduits, and new technology will render existing equipment obsolete.
17. Freight depot maintenance. Loading and unloading apparatuses will wear and need regular lubrication. Sensors, computers, and communication and electrical equipment will require maintenance and regular calibration.
18. Well-car and bogie maintenance. Well-car tubs and frames are historically durable. However, they will still need regular inspections and repair.
    

    Well-car bogies will incorporate moving parts that are subject to wear. Included are parts such as wheels, axels, disc brake rotors and pads, electrical pickups, wiring and insulation, and sensors and computers. Repairs and preventive maintenance will be accomplished when equipment sensors note abnormalities. Minor fixes may be made without separating the bogies from the cars. Major repairs will require an exchange of working bogies for damaged bogies at selected freight depots. The damaged bogies will be sent to heavy repair facilities for refurbishment.

19. Well-car battery maintenance. Batteries will be quickly exchanged when sensors note problems or when end-of-life circumstances suggest that recycling is appropriate.
20. Drone surveillance and track monitoring. Drones will be used to spot rail hazards. Artificial intelligence (AI) will analyze drone data to determine safety levels, notify responders, suggest labor and equipment needs, and provide a time frame for restoring service. The computers will redirect traffic, if needed, and inform customers of shipment delays. Data will be stored and classified to spot trends that may require remediation.

Software will be needed for the following:

21. Automated freight pickup and delivery scheduling, shipment tracking, and billing and payment. Railroads have already automated many of the mundane tasks of shipping arrangements, dispatching, shipment tracking, and billing. Shippers, when requesting shipping services on-line, will perform many of these tasks, assisted by software that is included within application software provided by a railroad. Refer to item 12 under “Savings …”.

    Some facets of automation will likely be installed regardless of whether or not a railroad is electrified and should be judiciously discounted as a cost for the proposed railroad.

22. Automated well-car traffic dispatching and control. Computers will dispatch trucks and motorized well cars in accordance with a railroad/trucker/customer contract.
23. Automated macro financial tracking and analysis. Computers will assemble shipment data and provide composite reports. The computers will use statistical process control to suggest operating adjustments.
24. Automated purchasing. Purchases and delivery information for routine recurring items will be completed automatically. Inventories will be recorded. Computers will purchase energy from suppliers based upon daily pricing.
25. Automated record keeping. Financial data will be saved and compiled so that the instantaneous financial health of a railroad may be assessed. Auditing, reporting, and tax preparation will be done automatically.

Labor:

26. Computer programmers and data analysts. While engineers and conductors and other operating personnel will no longer be needed, highly-trained computer programmers, analysts, and managers will be required.
27. Electrical engineers. Knowledgeable electrical engineers will be required to design, purchase, and manage the installation, maintenance, and servicing of electrical lines and equipment.
28. Specialized maintenance. Highly-trained trouble shooters, repairmen, and specialized equipment operators will be needed.v
    

    Funding:

29. Debt servicing. The costs of securing and using other people’s money will be significant.

References

1. Freight Facts and Figures 2017, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, p. 6-7.
2. Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2018, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, p. 7-1.
3. Freight Facts and Figures 2017, op. cit., pp. 6-12 through 6-14.
4. Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2018, op. cit., pp. 7-1 through 7-4.
5. Freight Facts and Figures 2017, op. cit., p. 2-5.
6. Ibid., pp. 2-4 through 2-5.
7. Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2018, op. cit., p. 6-2.
8. Freight Facts and Figures 2017, op. cit., p. 5-8.

Note: The format for page numbers in the references includes a chapter number followed by a hyphen and page number, i.e. 5-8 = chapter 5, page 8.

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